While the manifestations of violence against women vary with different economic, social and cultural contexts, there is no doubt that the phenomenon is universal and a major factor in the subordination of women worldwide. In the 1980s, when violence against women first became a major issue for women’s movements in every region, the focus was on acts of overt physical and sexual violence. This included, for example, female infanticide, female feticide, incest, battery, burning, mutilation, marital rape and “honour killings” in the private sphere, and sexual harassment, stoning and rape in public arenas. By the 1990s, the definition had been expanded to include more structural forms of gender-based violence. Certain cultural practices, like son-preference, dowry customs, and virginity tests, for example, were highlighted as demeaning to women and fostering conditions that normalize and tolerate abuses of women’s rights. In this way, violence against women increasingly has been understood as encompassing all forms of discrimination that create an environment in which such abuses can be perpetrated with impunity and, sometimes, even with social sanction. At the same time, an important focus of women's activism in this area continues to be directed towards resisting “victimhood” as an inevitable female response to violence.

Conceptualizing violence against women as a violation of human rights was a critical first step in framing abuses of women’s rights within the international human rights system. The recognition of violence against women as a human rights violation, and the implementation of legal and policy measures to make this recognition a reality, have been pivotal goals of the international movement for women's human rights. For example, the Vienna Tribunal on Violations of Women's Human Rights (1993) – a major event at the NGO forum of the second World Conference on Human Rights -- highlighted violence against women as a global human rights emergency and called on governments and the UN to take actions commensurate with the scale and gravity of the problem. As a result of the extensive efforts of women’s human rights advocates, especially around the UN World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993), many concrete commitments to tackle violence against women as a human rights abuse now exist at the international level. For example, the 1994 appointment by the UN Commission on Human Rights of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences, and the ongoing renewal of the Rapporteur’s mandate to the present day, can be viewed as an indicator of the commitment to this issue on the part of the women's movements globally, as well as on the part of the international community.

Human Rights Mechanisms

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (1993) serves as a moral statement on behalf of the international community to tackle gender-based violence as a human rights concern. This has enhanced the Beijing Platform for Action (1995), which includes Violence Against Women as one of its 12 critical areas of concern.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (Women’s Convention) is also an important human rights mechanism in combating violence against women because it defines such violence as a form of gender-based discrimination. Specifically, in 1992, the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which monitors adherence to the Women's Convention, adopted General Recommendation 19, that calls for the inclusion of gender-based violence in reporting processes related to the Women's Convention. Furthermore, the Women’s Convention has an Optional Protocol (or complaints procedure), adopted in 1999 and in force since December 2002, whereby individual women or groups of women, living under the jurisdiction of a state, which they consider has violated their rights under the Convention, can bring their cases directly to the attention of CEDAW.

The appointment of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women (SRVAW), Rhadika Coomaraswamy, who served in the role from 1994-2003, is a good example of a concrete achievement on the part of the global women's movements. However, despite the gains, there are many obstacles to fully implementing global commitments to women’s human rights and to eradicating violence against women. These are dealt with extensively in Coomaraswamy’s many reports (see Related Links for more details).

Another UN thematic mechanism whose work is particularly pertinent to issues such as honor killings and stoning deaths, for example, is the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions.

There have also been important gains in the recognition of gender-based violence in war and conflict situations. Rape as a war crime was clearly articulated within the purview of the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. More recently, the creation of the International Criminal Court has special relevance for women. The ICC Rome Statute (1997) explicitly recognizes rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization and sexual violence as war crimes and crimes against humanity. Further, it provides for the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit within the Court's registry to provide gender-sensitive protective measures and other services for witnesses, victims and others at risk on account of their testimony.

On a regional basis, the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence Against Women (1995) and its provision for an individual complaints procedure is also an important human rights mechanism in efforts to seek accountability for violence against women. In 2002, the Council of Europe issued its Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of women against violence and Explanatory Memorandum.

However, further advancement on the issue of violence against women is being threatened by the wider backlash at work against the women’s rights as human rights movement, generally involving alliances among conservative forces -- North and South. Most recently, progress was hindered at the March 2003 meeting of the UN Commission on the Status of Women. The delegate from Iran, with support from Egypt, objected to the inclusion of a paragraph that called on governments to "condemn violence against women and refrain from invoking any custom, tradition, or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its elimination as set out in the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women."

Facts and Figures

• In 1998, across the EU, one in four women had been victims of violence at some time in their lives where domestic violence accounted for the majority of cases; In Ireland, half of female murder victims were killed by their spouses or partners; In Finland, 20% of women suffered violence at the hands of their spouses/partners (EU survey 1998).

• In 2000 the proportions of women who reported attempted or completed forced sex with an intimate partner were: Brazil 10%, Japan 6.2%, Peru 46.7%, and Thailand 29.9%; In 1995-1996, the proportions of women reporting ever being physically assaulted by an intimate partner were Egypt 34%, Paraguay 10%, and USA 22%. (The World report on violence and health (2002), World Health Organization)

• In India, 6,200 dowry deaths were reported in 1994. That is, an average of 17 married women were killed daily when their families failed to make dowry payments to the husband's family (Moore, M. "Consumerism Fuels Dowry Death Wave," The Washington Post, March 17, 1995).

• Women are much more likely than men to be victims of elder abuse. More than a million women in the United States aged 65 and over are victims of abuse each year (Policy Research Inc., calculated from National Center on Elder Abuse, 1994).

• Battering is the greatest single cause of injury among US women, accounting for more emergency room visits (over one million per year) than auto accidents, muggings and rapes combined.

• In Papua, New Guinea, 67% of rural women and 56% of urban women have been victims of domestic violence.

• A three-month surveillance survey in Alexandria, Egypt, indicated that domestic violence was the leading cause of injury to women, accounting for 27.9% of all visits by women to trauma units.

• In a maternity hospital in Lima, Peru 90% of mothers aged 12 to 16 had been raped by their fathers, stepfathers or close male relatives.

• A survey in Barbados revealed that one in three women was sexually abused during childhood or adolescence.

• In Canada, 62% of women murdered died at the hands of an intimate male partner.

• In Costa Rica, 49% of a group of 80 battered women reported being battered during pregnancy; 7.9% reported miscarriages as a result.

  Sources: Unless otherwise noted, data gathered from fact sheet compiled by Heise, Lori, et. al. "Violence Against Women: A Neglected Public Health Issue in Less Developed Countries," Social Science Medicine 39, no. 9 (1994), pp. 1165-79; Roxanna Carrillo, Battered Dreams: Violence against Women as an Obstacle to Development. New York: UNIFEM, 1992; see also L. Heise, et al., Violence against Women: The Hidden Health Burden. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994.) (Taken from Local Action Global Change, (eds.) Mertus, Flowers and Dutt (UNIFEM & Center for Women's Global Leadership, 1999.)

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  ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

  
  

  Perspectives

  Planting Seeds of Change by Roxanna Carrillo, Special Advisor on Violence Against Women, UNIFEM (April 2002)

  Interviews

  An Interview with Leni Marin, Managing Director at the Family Violence Prevention Fund (FVPF). A longtime activist in the struggle for democratic rights in the Philippines, her country of origin, Marin is currently focusing her efforts on the right's of battered immigrant and refugee women. (May 2003)

  Other Points of View

  On the Verge of a Revolution
  http://www.dfn.org/voices/afghanistan/enslerchat.htm

  The Digital Freedom Network moderates an online discussion with Eve Ensler about the situation in Afghanistan. Ensler is the author of the Vagina Monologues and the founder of V-Day, a nonprofit organization that works to raise awareness and funds for grassroots groups working to stop violence against women and girls and helping those who are survivors of violence.

  Links

  Documents on Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on Violence Against Women; Its Causes And Consequences

  Provides access to most of the reports produced by Rhadika Coomaraswamy during her nine year tenure as Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences

  Integration of the Human Rights of Women and the Gender Perspective: Violence Against Women
  http://www.unhchr.ch/pdf/chr59/75corr1AV.pdf

  The most recent report of the SRVAW to the 59th session of the Commission on Human Rights

  Documents in the field of equality between women and men - Violence against Women
  http://www.humanrights.coe.int/equality/Eng/WordDocs/Document%20list.htm#Violence

  A collection of useful documents produced by the Council of Europe Directorate General of Human Rights

  Domestic Violence Laws of the World
  http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/population/domesticviolence/domesticviolence.htm

  Provides links to domestic violence laws of selected countries from various regions.

  Fact Sheet on Violence Against Women
  http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact239.html

  The World Health Organization gives an overview of the definition and nature of violence against women, it causes and public health approaches to combat it.

  End Violence against Women
  http://www.endvaw.org/

  This site was developed by the staff of the Johns Hopkins Population Information Program as part of its ongoing effort to collect and share documentation and communication materials produced in the worldwide struggle to end violence against women. The site provides policy documentation, articles and publications, training materials and curricula, and videos, brochures, and posters related to violence against women.

  Selected Resources Violence Against Women
  http://www.icrw.org/resources_vaw.htm

  This page provided by the International Centre for Research on Women, offers selected resources on violence against women, including issue briefs, reports and links to publications and government and non-government organizations.

  Toolkit To End Violence Against Women
  http://toolkit.ncjrs.org

  The Toolkit To End Violence Against Women aims to provide concrete guidance to communities, policy leaders, and individuals engaged in activities to end violence against women. The recommendations contained in the Toolkit were reviewed by numerous experts in the fields of sexual assault, domestic violence, and stalking. Each Toolkit chapter focuses on a particular audience or environment and includes recommendations for strengthening prevention efforts and improving services and advocacy for victims.

  Violence against Women Bibliography
  http://www.sigi.org/Resource/vaw_bib.htm

  This bibliography is provided on the web site of the Sisterhood Is Global Institute, which has a resource center with articles, reports, periodicals, books, pamphlets, and other publications on women's issues and activism throughout the world. It also maintains contact with numerous researchers and helps them link with other researchers with similar interests and concerns.

  New Additions to VAW Online Resources
  http://www.vaw.umn.edu/library/whatsnew

  University of Minnesota collection of resources.

  Taking Action

  16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence
  http://www.cwgl.rutgers.edu/16days/home.html

  The 16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence is an international campaign originating from the first Women's Global Leadership Institute sponsored by the Center for Women's Global Leadership in 1991. Participants chose the dates, November 25, International Day Against Violence Against Women and December 10, International Human Rights Day, in order to symbolically link violence against women and human rights and to emphasize that such violence is a violation of human rights. This 16-day period also highlights other significant dates including December 1, which is World AIDS Day, and December 6, which marks the anniversary of the Montreal Massacre.

  Inter Parliamentary Union: Campaign against Violence against Women
  http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/fgm.htm

  The site gives information about the Inter Parliamentary Union's campaign against female genital mutilation.

  V-Day Worldwide Campaign
  http://www.vday.org

  The V-Day Worldwide Campaign site dedicated to eradicating violence against women. It also serves as a networking and communication tool for V-Day organizers around the world.

  International Human Rights Law Group Campaign in Morroco: Empowering Girls and Young Women at Risk http://www.hrlawgroup.org/country_programs/morocco/GAR_campaign.asp

  A national campaign against sexual assault, human trafficking and forced labor in prostitution and domestic service